National and Ethnic Culture

National and ethnic culture affects the development of values. Once formed, values serve as frames of reference that help guide people’s behavior in many different contexts. Values can be modified or refined as a result of new experiences but are much more resistant to change than are attitudes. Thus, individuals will not change their values to join a particular organization. Rather, they make choices based on the agreement between their personal values and those of the organization. Many organizations try to select new associates who share the values consistent with their organizational culture. Values develop along two dimensions: (1) the types of personal goals that one ought to have and (2) the types of behaviors that one ought to use in reaching those goals.117 These two dimensions are sometimes referred to as the end–means dimensions of values. Thus, individu- als may develop an end value that they should seek a life of prosperity and a means value that they should be ambitious and hardworking to achieve that goal. These values complement each other by specifying a general goal in life and identifying acceptable behaviors for reaching it. A list of “end” values and “means” values is shown in Exhibit 13-9. Research has shown that basic personal values affect individual reactions to job situa- tions.118 Our satisfaction with the type of work we do, the rules imposed by the organization, career advancement opportunities, and other organizational factors are evaluated in terms of our values. Workers’ reactions to jobs in different cultures may vary because of differing basic value systems. For example, the basic value systems in the United States emphasize self-reliance and initiative, whereas in Japan, basic value systems emphasize self-sacrifice, obedience, and cooperation. As explained in Chapter 3, this difference has implications for how high- involvement management systems should be designed and implemented in different cultures. When an individual’s values and preferences do not fit prevailing structural arrangements, she may be a less-satisfied and a less-positive contributor to the organization. Similarly, and perhaps more importantly, when an individual’s values are not congruent with the organiza- tion’s culture, problems are likely to develop. In fact, when the lack of fit is between the CEO and the organization’s culture, the problems are likely to be more severe, as in the case of The Home Depot and Bob Nardelli. The outcomes are consistent with a great deal of research suggesting that similarity in values and goals attracts individuals to one another and to organ- izations.119 Job applicants as well as associates and managers in an organization should assess